The surviving books and manuscripts from the Malay World, particularly from the 14th century onwards, contain a captivating glimpse into the literary manifestation of cultural practices of the community. Beyond historical documentation, these literary treasures provide an insight particularly on topics such as magic, divination, and healing.
This article features a collection of selected manuscripts and rare books from our Singapore National Collection, including an in-depth view of one of the artefacts from the collection of the Malay Heritage Centre, the Jimat scroll. Together, these artefacts demonstrate the significance of magic and divination in the Malay world using religious scripture and illumination, and the ways in which science, cultural practice, and religious beliefs work together to endow objects with talismanic and protective powers.
The Influence of Islam and the Use of the Jawi Script
Malay works were traditionally experienced orally and aurally prior to and well after the adopting of manuscript practice, with early Malay manuscripts employing Indic scripts and lettering systems such as kawi , pallava and nigari . These early lettering systems were carved and inscribed on stones and palm leaves, and also engraved on monetary coins and jewellery. The arrival of Islam in the Malay Peninsula during the 12th to 13th century – through religious scholars, pilgrims and also arguably through merchants and traders from India and the Persian Gulf – had great influence on the existing literary tradition of the Malay world. The influence of Islam introduced the Arabic script, which was later adapted into what is known as the jawi script to include specific Malay words and phonemes.
Beyond introducing the jawi script and the culture of writing, Islam also heavily influenced the narratives that were written and shared with the community. Stories regarding key Islamic figures, such as those relating to Prophet Muhammad and his companions, and other tales relating to Islamic morals and ethics, were often localised for audiences in the archipelago.
This section showcases a series of selected literary works, all of varying content and function, that utilise the jawi script. Click here to explore other artefacts in our National Collection, from heritage objects to modern 20 th century textbooks, which feature the jawi script.
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Manuscript in Jawi
XXXX-02872
1896
Singapore
Collection of the National Museum of Singapore, National Heritage Board
The Sulalat al-Salatin (Genealogy of Kings: popularly known as the Sejarah Melayu), contains a tale about early Singapore and how it got its name. Considered as one of the most important literary works in the Malay World, early copies of the work were written in jawi.
Riau-Lingga State document
2001-00374
AH 1310 / 1892 CE
Riau-Lingga Archipelago, Indonesia
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This Riau-Lingga state court document, features the seal of the Yang Dipertuan Muda Sultan of Riau-Lingga. The seal is also bordered by a string of Dutch words, indicating the Sultan of Riau-Lingga. The text, written in jawi, bears the Islamic date AH 1310/1892 CE.
Malay Manuscript
2000-06777
c. 1900
Perak
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
A manual giving advice on how to treat or relieve illnesses. Beyond important historical works and official documents of the courts, respected scholarly works such as manuals and guides are also documented in jawi.
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Manuscript in Thai folding book format
1999-02644
AH 1250 / 1835
Pattani, South Thailand
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This handwritten early Malay Manuscript copy from Pattani, an old Malay Sultanate that is now part of Thailand. It includes the Nyanyi Siti Fatimah or Song of Siti Fatimah. These are poems written in praise of Prophet Muhammad’s daughter Fatimah, her husband Ali and their sons Hasan and Husain. The manuscript is handwritten using white ink on black gatefold paper, which was more common to Burma and Thailand but rare in the Malay world. This artefact illustrates the links between the Islamic literary tradition as well as influences from neighbouring lands.
Divination Manuscripts in the Malay World
Manuscripts of the Malay world documented the blurred distinction that existed between magic and religion. Books on magic and divination, as with other respected texts and manuscripts, were referred to as kitabs and held in high regard as they were perceived to be part of the literary corpus of the religion.
One form of Malay manuscripts were manuals for divination and healing. These manuscripts contain many of the tools that “magicians” used in carrying out their work, including incantations to recite, instructions for casting spells, methods to create talismans and endow them with protective powers, as well as charts, tables, and other techniques for fortune-telling and divination. There is also a close relationship with religion; Qur’anic texts and prayers were often included in these manuals and talismans, as they were believed to call on protective powers. These elements were reconciled with Islamic precepts and teachings, as it can be observed through how many of the incantations and talismans had involved the use of the Qur’an.
Malay “magicians” were often engaged by members of their communities for the practice of divination. Such acts can be defined as attempts to predict future events or gain information about the “unseen”. Divination manuscripts may be used for various purposes including everyday practical concerns and tasks, such as determining what dates and timings are ideal for building houses or planting crops.
Although divination was a common practice in the region, divination manuscripts tend to differ from each other according to the magicians’ preferences. Notes in their manuscripts tend to be specialised knowledge that may only be privy to the magician who owned or used them. Nonetheless, these manuscripts usually contained similar information on numerology, astrology, auspicious or inauspicious times, omens, dream interpretation, physiognomy, sortilege, and bibliomancy.
The talismanic inscriptions and designs present in these manuscripts were thought to contain great mystical power that may be utilised to affect the intended purpose of the user. The belief of divination manuscripts carrying the talismanic properties resulted in several types of divination manuals, one of which is in the form of a talismanic scroll. Talismanic scrolls were created or preferred by some practitioners as they were small and easy to transport.
Jimat Scroll - Malay Manuscript
2019-00571
circa 1900
Malay Peninsula
Collection of Malay Heritage Centre
This talismanic scroll, dating from around 1900, is believed to have been used to protect or benefit the owner or user. In Malay, these talismans are generally called azimat or jimat, although a protective amulet may also be referred to as a tangkal. An in-depth look at this jimat scroll is elaborated in the next section of the article.
This section showcases several selected divination manuscripts in the National Collection. Click here to explore more divination artefacts from our National Collection. Click here to explore other manuscripts in our National Collection, that covers a wide range of subject and presented in various scripts.
Malay Divination Work
2005-01511
1883
Sumatra, Indonesia
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This is a Malay divination manual, based on the day of the week with which the year commences. It is a translation of the work of Abi Ma'shur al-Falaki, a Persian mathematician, astronomer and Islamic philosopher. It was copied by Ahmad Abdul Qadir ibn Abdul Rahman Patani on the request of Sultan Ma’mun al-Rasyid Perkasa Alam Syah of Deli (r. 1873-1924).
Malay Manuscript
2000-06776
c. 1900
Perak
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
Handwritten in Jawi, this manual detail advice on deciphering dreams.
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Divination Manual
1996-00525
c. 1824
North Coast Java, Indonesia
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This page from the divination manual showcases how such manuals utilise Qur’an verses. The page on the right has a table of numbers from which one can pick any number from one to 15. The corresponding page on the left contains a circle with 30 inner segments, each containing the names of the 30 surahs or chapters from the Qur’an. Each of the surahs are associated with queries such as “Will I be successful?” or “Should I set sail today?”, and the user should pick one relevant to his or her situation. The number one chooses will determine an answer.
Javanese divination manuscript
1995-01821
1842
Solo, Central Java
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This Javanese divination manuscript, written in Indic script, illustrates how such divination texts are prevalent across the region. This pawakun (divination) manuscript is used to determine the auspicious dates in the Javanese calendar, for determining important activities and events.
The Protective Power of Talismans
Beyond divination manuals, the use of Qur’anic texts and verses were also evident in talismans, amulets and charms, which were also prevalent throughout the region. Small objects, most either carried or worn, were believed to be imbued with magical powers for various purposes such as protection, healing of ailments, and even attracting wealth or love interests. Their protective properties were said to be imbued by the bearing of Qur’anic inscriptions, as well as the use of names of prophets, and other imageries. Many Muslims prescribed to the idea that any object inscribed with the word or name of Allah or God will protect the owner or any individual who reads, touches, or dons the object. Thus, the individual would have the power to ward off evil by the protection of God.
This section showcases a selection of talismans from the National Collection in various forms. Click here to explore other talismanic items in our National Collection.
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Talismanic prayer scroll
1999-01412
16th century
Turkey
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This talismanic prayer scroll from Turkey is written in naskh and muhaqqaq scripts. Within certain sections of the scroll are magic squares and roundels containing prayers. It features various Qur’anic verses arranged in a variety of compositions. Such talismanic scrolls would have been rolled and carried for one’s protection.
A talismanic youth’s jama
2017-00015
16th or early 17th century
India, Mughal period
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This talismanic youth’s jama that is inscribed with all the surah of the Quran in compressed black and red ghubari script. Two large roundels on the front of the jama are inscribed with the shahada in elongated gold bihari script on a red and blue ground, while the border is filled with the 99 names of Allah. The shirt was possibly worn by warriors underneath their armour to protect them during battles. It is also possible that such garments were worn as healing garments, for example to cover the body of an ill person like a blanket.
Talismanic cap
1997-02096
c. 1600
Turkey
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This talismanic cap from Turkey features a motif common in talismans – a six-pointed star referred to as the “seal of Solomon”. The cap is also decorated with Qur'anic verses and abjad numbers. Abjad umbers refer to numbers representing the different attributes of Allah or names of prophets. It is likely that this cap was worn by men concealed underneath headgears during the Ottoman period for protective purposes.
Silk cap with calligraphic motif
2000-09138
19th century
India
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
Similar to the artefact above, this silk cap features Qur’anic verses written in red. As some verses of the Qur’an are believed to have talismanic qualities, Muslims wear such caps with inscriptions for spiritual and physical protection.
Talismanic vest
1997-04181
Late 19th to early 20th century
Java or Sumatra
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum.
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Andy Ng
Similar to other worn textiles and garments, this talismanic vest decorated with Arabic script was probably worn as ceremonial wear on special occasions, to imbue the wearer with protection.
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Calligraphic batik
2009-02990
Early to mid-20th century
Jambi, Indonesia
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
Fully adorned with handwritten calligraphic Arabic inscriptions, calligraphic batik cloths such as this was believed to be commonly worn as headcloths or talismanic scarves, or used as Qur’an covers, ceremonial banners, and coffin covers. This artefact is likely to have served as a coffin cover or a ceremonial banner. Cloths such as these were believed to be attributed with sacred and protective powers.
The Jimat Scroll
Divination manuals in the Malay world include what is commonly called jimat scrolls – talismanic scrolls believed to grant protection, healing or benefit through magic and sorcery. Small enough to be carried in one’s pocket, a jimat scroll accords the owner the ability to use or recite the incantations with ease of accessibility and convenience. This section takes an in-depth look at a jimat scroll from the collection of the Malay Heritage Centre.
Jimat Scroll - Malay Manuscript
2019-00571
circa 1900
Malay Peninsula
Collection of Malay Heritage Centre
As with other divination manuscripts and talismanic items, the surface of this jimat scroll is covered with prayers, signs, numbers, and decorative motifs on both the internal and external sides. Encased within a two-part wooden cover, this scroll shows signs of wear, with its dating estimated to be at the early 20th century.
Six buduh or magic squares – grids that contain numbers and alphabets – are inscribed across the scroll. In the Islamic tradition, these grids often contain the abjad letters ba (ب), wau (و), dal (د) and ha (ح) to form the word buduh. Variations of the buduh magic square in Malay manuscripts are catered to the needs of the user. Examples of day-to-day uses include providing protection for oneself, attracting customers to one’s business, easing childbirth, easing ailments, ensuring safe passage of letters and packages, and protecting one’s boats and during journeys and transportation. It is even used for divination purposes to determine suitable dates and timings for voyages and customary events.
Accompanying the texts are illuminations, such as frames containing scrolling foliage and floral patterns adorned with colours. These artistic features and decorative flourishes of the scroll shows a strong connection to aspects of Malay decorative and performing arts in the peninsula, such as woodwork and theatre.
Here are some close-up images of portions of the scroll, accompanied with selected Malay transliteration and explanations.
Transliteration: Inilah Mohor nubuwah pada pusat Rasullulah SAW. Barangsiapa melihat Mohor nubuwah itu pada pagi dan petang nescaya kasih kepadanya segala jinn dan segala manusia dan sementiasa ia dalam kesukaan jiwa dan tiada dapat seterusnya berbuat jahat kepadanya dimasukkan Allah Ta’ala ia ke dalam Syurga dengan tiada hisab Wallahua’lam.
The scroll opens with an introductory paragraph that describes the spiritual benefits of viewing the Mohor nubuwah (see next image). The paragraph also mentions the Prophet Muhammad, and Allah’s promise of heaven.
This segment features a circular pendant that contains the name Muhammad interlaced with Allah.
Depictions of the Seal of Prophethood, also known as Mohor nubuwah in Malay, are commonplace in talismanic scrolls from the Malay world. The seal refers to a mark that was borne by Prophet Muhammad, who was said to have a mark between his shoulder blades. As such, circular diagrams with prayers or supplications in them were believed to be able to grant protection or benefits to those who refer to them. These circular diagrams may have the names of Allah or supplications and are often surrounded by the names of the four Caliphs – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali.
Transliteration: Inilah Mohor nubuwah pada belakang Rasulullah SAW. Cara daripada Hasan RA. Barangsiapa melihat kepada Mohor nubuwah ini pada pagi dan petang sekalian manusia takut dan sentiasa ia beroleh kesukaan jiwa dengan berkat Mohor nubuwah ini InshaAllah.
This segment introduces the next circular pendant or depiction of the Mohor nubuwah. In this manuscript, the scroll informs the bearer of the talisman that gazing upon these seals would bring them blessings from Allah and protection from Hellfire. The various seals are said to be on different parts of Prophet Muhammad’s body, and each part will bring a different form of protection. It is important to note the timing stated in the scrolls as each seal works at either different times of the day or on different days of the week.
This segment features another circular pendant. Surrounding the circle are the names of the first four caliphs or the first four leaders of Islam who succeeded the Prophet Muhammad – Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-khattab and Uthman ibn Affan. It is believed that talismans which contain inscriptions with the names of prophets and religious figures have the power to protect an individual from hardship and danger by acting as conduits between these holy figures and the talisman’s carrier.
This segment shows how two separate pieces of manuscript was carefully combined to extend the length of the scroll. The various sections are carefully delineated by lines and coloured borders featuring vegetal and floral motifs. These repeated motifs, with an introduction of red ink, are a common form of ornamentation for Malay manuscripts.
This segment features a four by four buduh magic square. The magic square is completed with a mixture of alphabets and number. Bibliomancy using the Qur’an involves tools such as diagrams and tables, directing the user to specific Qur’an verses or titles of the surahs. Like the above segments, the buduh magic square is accompanied by a paragraph that describes how to use the magic square and the spiritual benefits that would be bestowed upon the user.
Transliteration (bottom line): Inilah cara tapak tangan Rasulullah SAW
Though small in size, both sides of the manuscript is used to contain verses, diagrams, passages and instructions. This close-up image shows a segment from the scroll’s reverse, where another table filled with a combination of alphabets and numbers. Below it, another line introducing a Mohor nubuwah is contained within a decorated oval frame.
This is another segment from the reverse of the scroll. As with most divination manuscripts and talismans, the verse la illaha illa Allah Muhammadur Rasulullah can be found, which is translated to “I bear witness that there is no God but Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad is the messenger of Allah”. This phrase, called the shahada or Muslim creed is a declaration of one’s belief and is considered one of the five pillars of Islam. The close relationship of divination manuals and talismans with religion is reiterated here.
Illuminations and Imageries
In general, Malay literary manuscripts lacked illuminations. However, selected manuscripts, such as devotional works of the Dala’il al kayrat of al-Jazuli and kitab maulid contained beautiful illustrations, more specifically stylized representations of the symbols of holy cities of Mecca and Medina. This is in accordance with Islamic art tradition, where figurative representations and depictions of living creatures are often excluded. Instead, geometric patterns and arabesque motifs are more prominently featured. Such decorations are typically found in title pages, although the more ornate manuscripts may have artistic features throughout the folio. The rectangular frames that bordered the texts may be embellished with arches and floral and foliage motifs in an intricate meandering pattern. Similar motifs can also be found in other Malay decorative arts, such as woodcarving, silverwork, embroidery, textiles, and sculptures.
This section highlights a selection of manuscripts from the National Collection that feature illuminations. Click here to explore other illuminated manuscripts in our National Collection.
Guide to Goodness (Dalail al-Khayrat)
2007-53427
19th century
Terengganu, Malay Peninsula
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This bound manuscript, known as Dalail al-Khayrat or the Guide to Goodness, contains a collection of salawat (prayers of blessings) for the Prophet. It also includes the sayings of the Prophet and stories about his life. This image showcases a double page which features the Mosque in Mecca on the right page, and the Mosque in Medina on the left.
Illuminated folio with birth announcement
2020-00002
4 Safar 1289 AH / 13 April 1872
Lingga, Riau
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This illuminated folio records the birth of a daughter on 4 Safar 1289 AH (13 April 1872), followed by prayers and supplications in Arabic. The text is enclosed within a decorative frame, the style emblematic of the illumination styles from East Malay Peninsular and Pattani, southern Thailand.
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Section of a Qur’an
2010-00811
Early to mid-19th century
Aceh, North Sumatra
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This manuscript contains a section of the Qur’an, from Surah Al-Anfal (Chapter 8) to Surah al-Zumar (Chapter 39). The image above showcases the illuminated double page which is the Acehnese illumination style. Though each region of Southeast Asia has its own distinct style, common features such as geometric patterns and foliage motifs are observed.
Qur’an
2009-01709
19th century
Terengganu, Malaysia
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
Written in naskh calligraphy, this Qur’an from Terengganu features three finely illuminated double pages at the beginning, middle and end of the manuscript. The large size of this Qur’an, and the use of gold, is typically reserved for royal patronage.
The Making of Manuscripts – Materials and Techniques
The materials and techniques used for the manuscripts often hint at their place of origin. Most extant manuscripts are only dated from the 17th century, as earlier works had degraded due to the humidity of the region. Manuscripts made from materials such as bark and bamboo were able to survive for longer. Some manuscripts were even inscribed in stone.
The paper used for manuscripts tend to be manufactured in Europe and brought over to the region, as there was limited paper-making tradition in the Malay archipelago. Italian paper was also brought over from the Middle East. For the text and writing, black ink was commonly used, while blue, red, and yellow inks were also used as decorative elements or to contrast certain texts against the black. In later manuscripts, watercolour was also used.
Most manuscripts were not bound, but are instead loose, or sewn together. Loose leaves were held together using pieces of cotton or leather covers, depending on the region. Other methods used to keep these manuscripts together were folding-book, which was mainly used in mainland Southeast Asia, or Islamic binding, which was inspired by manuscripts from other Muslim communities.
This section highlights several artefacts that are related to the making of manuscripts. Click here to explore other artefacts in the National Collection related to book binding.
Watercolour of Turkish scribes at work
1998-01407
1876
Possibly Europe
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This watercolour depicts an image of scribes at work. The Qur'an, hadith (sayings of the Prophet) and knowledge were highly regarded in general, and there was a great demand for books in the Islamic world. Scribes were generally accorded much respect as they were seen to be copying the word of God. They not only worked on religious manuscripts but also on literary and scientific manuscripts.
Large illuminated Qur’an
2012-00167
18th or 19th century
Probably Indonesia, Southeast Asia
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum.
Gift of Maniza and Iqbal Jumabhoy
This is a beautiful Malay Qur’an written in naskh calligraphy with finely illuminated double pages. The manuscript used colours and gold at the beginning, middle and end of the manuscript. The lavish use of gold was traditionally reserved for royal patronage and these manuscripts are very rare. It is likely that such Qur'ans were used on special occasions by a member of the royal court or by a wealthy patron of high rank.
Lontar palm manuscript
XXXX-03571
Java or Bali
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This manuscript is made from Lontar palm leaves and is inscribed with an Indic style script, likely Javanese or Balinese.
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Guide to Goodness (Dalail al-Khayrat)
2007-53427
19th century
Terengganu, Malay Peninsula
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This manuscript is bound by leather binding. Finely illuminated with ink and colour, it contains a double page featuring the Mosque in Mecca on the right and the Mosque in Medina on the left.
Book binding tool
1996-00182
Early 20th century
Turkey
Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum
This wheel-like tool was used by book binders to make a row of tiny indentations on the leather for decoration. Islam places great emphasis on the search for knowledge. Thus, all aspects of bookmaking from calligraphy and illumination, to binding and decoration was considered significant and great care was placed in the production of manuscripts.
Acknowledgements
Written by:
Afiqah Zainal, Manager (Cataloguing), Knowledge & Information Management, Heritage Conservation Centre
Contributors:
Wan Nur Syafiqa, Research Assistant (Cataloguing), Knowledge & Information Management, Heritage Conservation Centre
Alex Soo, Asst Manager (Photography), Knowledge & Information Management, Heritage Conservation Centre
Zinnurain Nasir, Assistant Curator, Malay Heritage Centre
Syafiqah Jaafar, Assistant Curator, National Museum of Singapore
Advice and assistance:
Ho Swee Ann, Senior Manager (Cataloguing), Knowledge & Information Management, Heritage Conservation Centre
Sufiyan Hanafi, Manager, Collections Management, Heritage Conservation Centre
Notes
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